Madeleine Wenman 20/06/2022 Madeleine Wenman 20/06/2022

Frei Otto’s Contribution to the Development of Modern Architecture

Through his contribution as an architect, philosopher, inventor and sculptor, Frei Otto has had a profound impact on the development of modern architecture as we know it today. Although his focus wasn’t on building as much as possible, it is the development of his work that displays his structural and philosophical evolution. He is most well-known for his ‘principle of lightweight construction’ where-in which Otto combines attributes of lightness, openness and mobility to create an efficient nature-inspired architecture. “My hope is that light, flexible architecture might bring about a new and open society.” (Die Zeit, 2003).

Born in Germany in 1925, Otto grew up during the height of the Nationalist Socialist movement. He learnt stone masonry from his father and grandfather, who were both sculptors, while simultaneously holding a strong interest in aviation. When Otto was still a teenager, he was drafted into the German air force as a pilot during WW2, experiencing first-hand the structural possibilities of the thin membranes used in aerospace engineering. The war had a profound influence on the philosophy of his work; in the 2016 documentary ‘Frei Otto: Spanning the Future’, he stated: “The strongest first semester for a student of city planning and architecture is to see a burning city.” Interestingly, it was in a French prisoner of war camp, nearing the end of the war, where Otto first put his ideas to practical use. He was put to work in reconstruction using minimal materials and intuitively begun designing and creating tent-like shelters, strengthening a key element of his design philosophy, ‘how to build more with less.’

For his postgraduate studies he focused predominantly on tent and cable net constructions, completing his doctoral thesis on suspended roofs in 1954 (Meissner, 2015). Consequentially, he begun working with tent-maker, Peter Stromeyer who assisted him in realising a number of his designs during the 1950’s, including the Music Pavilion in 1955, shown in Figure 1. Ottos form finding method was very unique producing extremely precise models in comparison with other contemporaries of his time. Its physical form can be described as the reduction to an optimised expression of structural efficiency, explored later on at his Institute for Lightweight Structures in Stuttgart in what they called “optimized path systems.”

Figure 2: Seidenhaut, soap film model study (SL Rasch)

Otto, who identifies himself as a “form seeker, and sometimes also a form finder” (Meissner, 2015) developed a concept of form finding that mitigates any distortion, to uncover truly efficient form (Hildebrand, 2015). Otto’s approach to modelling has been likened to that of Gaudí as both architects solicit the aid of gravity through their hanging models. It can be argued that this equilibrated approach to design is problematic due to the logical optimisation hindering artistic expression (Burry, 2016). Otto never saw it like this, however, since his architecture aims to give form the pure artistic beauty of nature, and so, similar to Gaudí, using this modelling approach didn’t stifle his artistic expression, but instead enabled its manifestation.

Although the dematerialisation of architecture has been a popular notion since the industrialisation movement, Otto was unique in his development of a comprehensive society-related idea of architecture while maintaining a ‘lightness against brutality’ (Nerdinger, 2005) in direct contrast with the heavy, dogmatic structures of Nazi and Soviet architecture which had plagued the former half of the twentieth century. Alluding to his focus on design philosophy over physical structure, Otto has stated “I built little. But I devised many “castles in the air.”” (Meissner, 2015).

As a response to the destruction from the war, many architects were turning their attention to the planning of the city. Following the dissolution of CIAM (International Congresses of Modern Architecture) due to public scrutiny, 1958 saw the formation of GEAM (Mobile Architecture Study Group), of which Otto was a member. The group’s main aim was to scrutinise and criticise the contemporary conditions of architecture and planning, promoting the concept of mobile architecture as a solution for the rigid, formal planning that dominated European cities. (Escher, 2016).

In contrast with CIAM, GEAM was more technically orientated; members shared interests in biological systems and cybernetic techniques and incorporated these into their designs. Furthermore, each member had first-hand experience of living in a society controlled by totalitarian regimes and so, ‘individual mobility’ was of utmost importance, hence the incorporation of ‘mobile architecture’ in the group name. Architecture, in these architects’ minds, should be adaptive and should change in accordance with the needs of the individual rather than enforcing constraints on masses in society; this in keeping with the psychological freedom and individual agency required for a healthy society. Otto’s philosophy closely aligned with this since he was fascinated by the connection architecture had with other areas of life. It is unsurprising then that GEAM was strongly opposed to the mass roll out of low-quality building stock and standardised city layouts done to replace the large areas of cities destroyed during the war (Escher, 2016).

Although designs produced by the group were ‘utopian’ in nature, they did have strong connections to real world issues. For example, at the same time as Ehrenkrantz’s SCSD system in America, the GEAM group were also experimenting with personalised ‘adaptive’ architecture (Escher, 2016). Three members of the group, including Otto, were involved in designing different systems for adaptable units of space (Jan Trapman, 1957).

Figure 3: Jan Trapman, Kristallbouw, c. 1957 (Moravanszky, 2017)

Otto was aware of the movement towards “mass production” the construction industry was exhibiting and realised that society was not quite ready for his elegant, mobile design ideas that promoted dematerialisation. Since he did not want to build permanent, heavy structures that many requested he instead decided to initiate a private research institute in Berlin, the Institute for Development of Lightweight Constructions, in 1958 (Glaeser, 1972). This change of direction into a focus on research was perhaps the best decision for the development of his practise as he could discuss and teach his ideas to the younger generation, directly changing the narrative of modern architecture. Following this he was recommended to head the new Institute for Lightweight Structures in Stuttgart, a defining moment in Otto’s career.

A large amount of ground-breaking research on cable net structures was carried out here, much of which helped realise Otto’s award-winning German Pavilion at Expo ’67 in Montreal, as shown in Figure 4, employing his signature anti-classic curves in additive arrangements. This large-scale, tensile structure was one of Otto’s few opportunities to demonstrate their benefits from his ideas and research that had previously been contained to concepts and models. It is far more economic to bridge large-scale spans in tension as the length to volume ratio is far greater than in other structures, thereby increasing the structures tensile strength.

Figure 4: Expo ’67 German Pavilion, Montreal 1967 (metalocus)

In 1960, just after finishing his studies on water tensioned membranes, Otto met Gerhard Helmke, a professor of biology and anthropology at the Technical University of Berlin. The following year they founded an interdisciplinary research group, ‘Biology and Building’ together also at the Technical University of Berlin (Nerdinger, 2005). This created a space for collaboration and experimentation, as depicted in Figure 5, between biologists, palaeontologists and architects. Theories, ideas and information could then be shared as a method to bridge the gap between architecture and nature (Meissner, 2015).

Figure 5: Otto working on a pneumatic experiment, 1973 (Fabricius, 2016)

Through this marrying of minds, a plethora of research was undertaken attempting to bridge the gap between Otto and Helmcke’s respective areas of expertise. Together they developed theories of biotechnics to assign structural properties to a cosmology of objects made up of both living and non-living nature; later on, the BIC method materialised from this (Fabricius, 2016). Furthermore, both scholars suspected that what they called the ‘pneu’ was the fundamental stage of biological form from which all other form has evolved. If this was the case, it would serve as an indispensable interdisciplinary bridge for their search for a greater method of structural optimisation.

Otto later stated that this research became more important to him than architectural construction (Meissner, 2015). They analysed hundreds of facets of nature, different spider webs, tree structures, among other things, dedicating innumerable hours gathering evidence in favour of ‘pneu’ as the fundamental structure. Otto’s pneu theory, however, seemed to indicate a ‘systems paranoia’ also indicates a kind of ‘systems paranoia’ in which the collected data appears to have a universal, ubiquitous quality due to the lack of boundary conditions set by the system (Fabricius, 2016). Essentially the definition for vague was too ‘vague’ and ‘all-encompassing.’ Although Otto never answered their question, this research inspired a movement of natural design, especially in the universities in which Otto taught and contributed greatly to the field of pneumatic structures.

Figure 6: A diagram sketch depicting connections within the “pneu” (Fabricius, 2016)

Since pneumatically distended membranes only require air pressure to support them, they are essentially in a constant state of weightlessness. Due to his extensive research on the topic, Otto formulated the first coherent theory of this building type. He experimented with potential forms and after applying his knowledge of tent structures, he was able to reduce and vary the membrane height and provide interior drainage in analogy to the high-and-low-point principle (Glaeser, 1972).

In 1971, in a project with Ewald Bubner and Kenzo Tange, Otto designed an Arctic City Envelope, shown in Figure 7. The thin membrane dome shaped envelope, inspired by pneumatic design, functions as an enclosure enabling a conditioned environment within. The structure consists of a steel cable net superstructure supporting double layered transparent foil. Pneumatic architecture has successfully been incorporated into architectural design in recent years, a good example being by the explorative architect, Michael Pawlyn, a prominent figure in regenerative design and biomimicry. He was involved in the design of the Eden Project, shown in Figure 8, a visitor attraction greenhouse centre, the form of which was inspired by bubbles. This bears some similarity to Otto’s Arctic City Envelope; both structures consist of a steel superstructure however Pawlyn’s is extremely lightweight and incorporates Buckminster Fuller’s geodesic dome design to support itself structurally.

Figure 7: The Arctic City Project, 1971 (Hidden Architecture)

Figure 8: The Eden Project, 2000 (Eden Project)

Otto has taken on many roles throughout his career, never truly adhering to the boundaries of the traditional definition of architect. Similar in this way to Eladio Dieste, he has been likened to an inventor since for many of his designs he fashioned bespoke details and equipment, including cable clamps and alternate measuring tools, to aid in the function of these structures. These additional ‘non-structures’ were largely used in his large-scale retractable roofs, although not many of these were constructed. Otto designed some of these to retract automatically, giving the structure even greater mobility and deployability. For Otto, the qualities of mobility, deployability and lightness represented a truly adaptive architecture minimising waste and reducing unnecessary future production.

Figure 9: The Aviary at Hellerbrunn Zoo, 1980 (Dezeen)

“We have not yet experienced the fragile, perhaps even ephemeral, architecture of the physical and psychical integration of man into his environment. But we seek the architecture of understanding and of the great vision of a synthesis of all the objects of nature.” (Meissner, 2015)

Although Otto gave up practising architecture in 1970 to become a full-time consultant, he did complete one final piece in 1980, the Aviary at Hellerbrunn Zoo, shown in Figure 9. This form of ethically driven minimalism is arguably Otto’s greatest architectural achievement. He manages to synthesise nature and structural efficiency in a light, translucent canopy that allows you to forget that you are standing beneath an enclosure and feel at one with the surrounding nature. This also creates a much more comfortable and ethical way of keeping the animals. The site spans 5000 square metres and reaches 18m in height. Structurally, staffs have been used to hold the compressive forces, while a thin steel mesh envelope acts in tension.

Even though Otto’s architecture is neither loud nor assertive in nature, he has nonetheless managed to garner great traction and intrigue from both public and professional bodies. As one of the pioneers of early, pre-digital parametric design, his chosen method of finding form straddles the boundary of the architectural and engineering practice, strengthening the relationship between the two disciplines. Some deem his ideology naïve, others as “endearingly silly” and as a product of its time (Murphy, 2015), however, this seems to be a shallow misinterpretation of the depth of Otto’s research and the relation of this research to his projects. Throughout his career he has shone a light on a plethora of areas deeply connected to structure and form that had previously been, and still often continue to be, disregarded, including those relating to biology, anthropology and psychology. These aspects of design are becoming increasingly important for our current climate in which mental, physical and environmental wellbeing are becoming more unstable. And so, for obvious reason, Otto’s social and architectural critiques and musings have caused a ripple effect in later generations, changing the perception of modern architecture and the potential of contemporary practice. In this way, Otto’s optimistic, alternative narrative serves as a reminder that there is another, more sympathetic way to approach design and construction that connects us deeper with the world in which we exist.

Bibliography

Aldinger, Irmgard Lochner. “Frei Otto: Heritage and Prospect.” International Journal of Space Structures 31, no. 1 (2016): 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266351116649079.

Berlin, Staatliche Museen zu. “Image Spaces: Biology and Building.” Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Accessed March 27, 2022. https://www.smb.museum/en/exhibitions/detail/image-spaces-biology-and-building/.

Burkhardt, Berthold. “Natural Structures - the Research of Frei Otto in Natural Sciences.” International Journal of Space Structures 31, no. 1 (2016): 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266351116642060.

Burry, Mark. “Antoni Gaudí and Frei Otto: Essential Precursors to the Parametricism Manifesto.” Architectural Design 86, no. 2 (2016): 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1002/ad.2021.

Escher, Cornelia. “Nested Utopias: GEAM’s Large-Scale Designs.” Re-Scaling the Environment, 2016, 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783035608236-006.

Fabricius, Daniela. “Architecture before Architecture: Frei Otto's ‘Deep History.’” The Journal of Architecture 21, no. 8 (2016): 1253–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602365.2016.1254667.

Glaeser, Ludwig. The Work of Frei Otto. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1972.

Goldsmith, Nicholas. “The Physical Modeling Legacy of Frei Otto.” International Journal of Space Structures 31, no. 1 (2016): 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266351116642071.

Meissner, Irene, Möller Eberhard, and Frei Otto. Frei Otto Forschen, Bauen, Inspirieren = Frei Otto: A Life of Research, Construction and Inspiration. München: Edition Detail, 2017.

Murphy, Douglas. “Frei Otto (1925-2015).” Architectural Review, July 21, 2020. https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/reputations/frei-otto-1925-2015.

Oliva Salinas, Juan G., Marisela Mendoza, and Edwin González Meza. “Reflections on Frei Otto as Mentor and Promoter of Sustainable Architecture and His Collaboration with Kenzo Tange and Ove Arup in 1969.” Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures 59, no. 1 (2018): 87–100. https://doi.org/10.20898/j.iass.2018.195.900.

Otto, Frei, and Berthold Burkhardt. Occupying and Connecting: Thoughts on Territories and Spheres of Influence with Particular Reference to Human Settlement. Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges, 2011.

Otto, Frei, and Bodo Rasch. Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch: Finding Form: Towards an Architecture of the Minimal: The Werkbund Shows Frei Otto, Frei Otto Shows Bodo Rasch: Exhibition in the Villa Stuck, Munich, on the Occasion of the Award of the 1992 Deutscher Werkbund Bayern Prize to Frei Otto Und Bodo Rasch. Stuttgart: Edition Menges, 1995.

Otto, Frei, and Winfried Nerdinger. Frei Otto: Complete Works: Lightweight Construction, Natural Design. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2005.

Spuybroek, Lars. “The Structure of Vagueness.” Peformative Architecture, 2005, 167–82. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203017821-13.

Trapman, Jan. “Kristalbouw. Een bijdrage tot de woningbouw,” Bouw 12, no. 11 (1957) 230–40

Madeleine Wenman 26/12/2020 Madeleine Wenman 26/12/2020

A proposed approach to environmental sustainability regarding the technical design of structures.

Throughout history, the human race has had to live symbiotically with nature, depending on natural resources for survival. A myriad of structures from the past can be found exemplifying intuitive solutions that work alongside nature. In these examples the structural form of a dwelling has evolved to be highly efficient within its specific environment.

An example of sustainable structural efficiency which has continued to be used for centuries is the Inuit’s igloo. The ancient craft of building has been passed down through the generations, utilising the specific environmental conditions and that can be fully constructed in half an hour. For instance, compacted, dry snow is required for the snow blocks to be individually structurally stable, thereby yielding a warm protective dwelling with light able to permeate through. The wind-blown snow used naturally welds together, interlocking the ice crystals. The form active structure of an igloo is based on the catenary curve, creating an optimised shape helping ease tension within the blocks and direct loading down the sides of the igloo rather than through the centre. For this reason, upper ceiling blocks are wedged in place more for shelter than structural support.

Figure 1 – Inuit family building an igloo, from Wikimedia

Dating as far back as Ancient Greece, mathematicians Pythagoras and Euclid recognised the presence of the ‘golden ratio’ in a plethora of natural scenarios. This has since been applied to the engineering of many structures including the proportions of the columned façade and plan of the Parthenon, one of the most influential precedents for the development of Western Architecture. Due to its non-form-active arrangement an excess of stone is used reducing the overall efficiency of the structure, furthermore, all material above the architrave is ornamental and non-structural. Having said this, the chosen structural system positively contributes to the architectural treatment, with high structural efficiency beneath the architrave.

Figure 2 - Caryatids of The Erechtheion, Athens, Greece, 420BC, from Chegg

Similarly, the natural world has always been a source of aesthetic inspiration for engineers, designers and inventors. The use of caryatid statues as structural columns in the Erechtheion incorporates art, science, nature and mathematics in one single form and stands as an example of structure as ornament. The organic theme has continued to influence modern architecture and can be misinterpreted by the untrained eye as ‘eco-design’ or ‘biomimicry’ when in fact these are little more than stylistic explorations of the natural world.

Sustainability is commonly defined as “the ability to be maintained at a certain level”. This maintenance is relevant to multiple aspects of sustainability namely economic, environmental and social. Due to the interrelated nature of these, it is important to consider all of them for true environmental sustainability to not only be achieved but also maintained. According to the Brundtland Report of 1987, a more relevant definition of sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

We are currently in the midst of an environmental crisis where the construction industry alone produces over one third of CO2 emissions. Looking at the current state of climate change it is clear drastic changes need to be made regarding how architectural practice is conducted. As depicted in Figure 3, if we continue along our current trajectory without following our recommended environmental policies will cause an increase in temperature anywhere between 4.1 and 4.8°C above the pre-industrial temperature. This temperature increase would give rise to further levels of extreme weather patterns and as a result, the extinction of the human species.

Figure 3 - 2100 Warming Projections, from Climate Action Tracker

In order to reduce the damage greenhouse gas emissions have had on our environment ‘regenerative architecture’ needs to be implemented. This encourages the representation of a truly sustainable system as a closed-loop system, where there is no net waste of resources as the system replenishes itself automatically. This is referred to as ‘regenerative architecture’ and some definitive changes need to be made in our approach to architectural design and construction for this to be fostered. The cultivation of regenerative architecture takes time which is extremely scarce. In the meantime, alternate approaches need to be taken before it is possible to fully transition to a closed-loop system.

It was only after the industrial age that architecture grew into its own discipline separate from structural engineering. The turn of the 20th century brought with it the discovery of the energy stored in fossil fuels, the availability of new building materials and advanced techniques. Suddenly it was possible to directly control the thermal temperature with indoor heating and electricity, enabling the use of thinner walls and a larger amount of glass. This made space for the creative freedom of the architect resulting in the emergence of a variety of experimental styles, most of which lacked efficiency and environmental sustainability.

In reaction to the dominating style of Neoclassicism prevalent at the end of the 19th century, natural forms began to infiltrate into mainstream design. Through the utilisation of newfound resources, construction became a lot more affordable, opening up the experience of a refined lifestyle to the middle-class. The addition of ornamentation and detailing became almost common practice while it had previously been reserved for the upper class. Art Nouveau was a prime example of the incorporation of natural shapes and patterns into an architectural style.

Figure 4 – Horta House, Brussels, Victor Horta, 1898, from Apollo Magazine

Through the incorporation of asymmetrical lines, vines and flowers, Victor Horta’s home and studio, Horta House, elegantly transforms seemingly crude natural materials into the elegant features on the exterior and interior of the building. This gives the structure a light ethereal feeling which was previously not possible to attain with traditional construction methods. Figure 4 shows the glass atrium above the stairwell incorporating ‘American glass’ and stained-glass windows for diffusion of the light. The non-form-active cast iron framework is also visible.

However, this aesthetic harmony comes at a cost to the environment. Cast iron, marble and stained-glass all have extremely high embodied energy and carbon generated during quarrying and production. There is also an excessive use of iron for decorative features rather than structural elements. A similar effect could’ve been made using wood, heavily reducing the carbon footprint of the building.

Figure 5 – Structural framework of the Riverside Museum, Glasgow, Zaha Hadid, 2011, from Archiscene

Early modernism was a major initial influential style in which the architectural attitude shifted to an ethos of “human superiority over the natural world”. This mindset only increased the polarity between architecture and sustainable development, paving the way for the creation of impressive structures often monumental in size and hence, extremely inefficient in their structural form. A large proportion of construction occurring in the 21st century continues the legacy of modernism, liberating architecture from the constraints of the past through cheap fossil fuels.

Figure 6 – Riverside Museum interior, from AR

Designers didn’t appreciate the extent of damage these processes were having on the environment and instead were glorified for the feats of creative genius. Since high quality structural engineering is paramount for the working of each structure, the factors that are not taken into account inevitably ended up being cost and environmental damage.

Zaha Hadid’s Riverside Museum in Glasgow serves as example of an architect’s complete disregard for the structure of a building and the complex engineering required to bring it to life. This open plan gallery space, constructed in 2011, showcases typical inconsideration of structural requirements through design for artistic purposes.

From an environmental perspective the rigidity of Hadid’s vision meant that there was no way for the building to be engineered in an efficient form. Since this non-form-active steel structure consists of long-span triangular girders, either columns or transverse elements were required to support the loading from the roof structure. However, due to the function of the interior as a gallery space, columns were not an option.

Hadid also rejected the idea of connecting the girders to create a structural framework at either end, resulting in extremely high internal forces. This meant an extremely large volume of steel needed to be used in order to carry the loading within the portal frames to the ground.

Overall, an astoundingly low regard for environmental sustainability has been taken, especially considering how recently this building was constructed. In terms of the innovative engineering conducted by Buro Happold, this project was a roaring success. Intuitive design on the other hand is lacking, with little sympathy to the natural environment which has become a requirement for architecture in the modern age.

Figure 7 – Bloomberg Building (cross section), London, Foster & Partners, 2017, from AR

The issue of ‘greenwashing’ in current sustainable architecture is growing exceedingly problematic. Misinformation to the general public and practicing architects has a detrimental effect on the advancement of environmentally sustainable design, setting us back from meeting 2050 sustainability targets, and prevents truly skilled eco-designers from receiving the recognition they deserve. This is the issue with the Bloomberg building in London which managed to receive a BREEAM score of 98.5%, which later increased to 99.1%, while being predominantly constructed from concrete, steel and glass. This was done through the incorporation of eco-gadgets like the intelligent wall consisting of light and heat sensitive vanes that orient themselves for maximum thermal and solar efficiency.

Architect Foster & Partners and structural engineer AKTII won the 2018 RIBA Stirling Prize for architectural excellence proving, in the eyes of George Kafka, author of the Architectural Review, that “Money talks”. Inferring their win was largely due to the fact that the total building cost was over £1billion. Further commentary from the February 2019 ‘Failure’ issue includes the statement, “Bloomberg London’s innovation in its operational sustainability is an effective greenwashing of the company’s substantial contribution to the very engine room of climate destruction”.

In order to maintain environmental sustainability, social and economic sustainability also require a significant amount of attention. Since true sustainability is represented by a closed loop system the weakening of any aspect results in the eventual failure of the whole system.

This is one of the many reasons why the preservation of existing historical buildings is very important. A large part of history and culture is tied up in buildings that are knocked down every day. This results in an extreme waste of energy and materials, along with the release of further greenhouse gases through the decommissioning and rebuilding process. Structures now need to be designed with adaptive reuse in mind so that future reconstruction seamlessly integrates into the design process. If this became common practice it would have a hugely beneficial effect both economically and environmentally.

Figure 8 – 171 Collins Street, Melbourne, Bates Smart, 2011, from AR

171 Collins Street in Melbourne, Australia has served many functions over the past 100 years. Bates Smart Architects were chosen to transform the structure into a working office building. Rather than implementing sustainable features into a historic building, this project directly expands the structure through the addition of the glass skyscraper. Bypassing a lot of complications with regard to the interaction with the pre-existing structure during feature installation.

Upon closer inspection, however, it soon becomes apparent that this is yet another example of unsustainable greenwashing through the overuse of sophisticated systems to achieve high energy scores and make up for the colossal structure they “attached” onto the back. This project received a 6 Star Green Office rating and are proud bearers of the “World leadership” level for environmental sustainability.

Since skyscrapers on average use 30% more energy than standard buildings, attaching a fully double-glazed glass skyscraper is extremely inefficient. Architect Ken Yeang has noted that many designers incorrectly assume the more eco-gadgets are used, the more ecological a design is. Furthermore, architects often knowingly add these features so that they can continue producing self-satisfying building designs leaving the ignorant public under a false sense of security. When in reality the structurally inefficient form may completely negate from the benefits.

Arguably the most influential architect within the field of environmental sustainability is Ken Yeang, who has based his practical philosophy off of the self-sustaining nature of ecosystems. The emulation and replication of ecosystems within our cities is not a new idea however it had not successfully been put into practice before the emergence of Yeang’s architecture. Yeang recognises that the use of skyscrapers is, in itself, extremely bad for the environment. However, since they are going to be built regardless in areas of high population density, designing them so that they are sympathetic to the environment can be extremely useful both for maintaining social sustainability and environmental sustainability.

Yeang identified that although ecosystems include both abiotic and biotic factors, the overwhelming majority of architecture is created solely with abiotic factors and challenged this in his architectural endeavours. The range of biodiversity was also an important consideration as this greatly strengthens the ecosystem. Determining the exact location of target species habitats is conducted before the determination of the structural form.

Figure 9 - The Solaris Building, Singapore, Ken Yeang, 2011, from e-architect

Both of these considerations among many others are demonstrated through his Solaris Building in Singapore. Situated in a former military base area, this is the first eco-design skyscraper to successfully replace the lost biodiversity of it’s environment. The incorporation of a continuous 1500m perimeter ramp supports the biodiversity of the building, balancing abiotic and biotic factors.

Sitting on a two-way spanning reinforced concrete slab meant that this non-form-active structure was relatively easy to mould into a bespoke plan structure as required in this building. Although the embodied energy due to the use of concrete is fairly high, it is significantly less than if the structural component of the skyscraper was steel or glass.

Another environmental benefit was the incorporation of passive airflow and ventilation throughout the building. This is made possible through the inclusion of a passively ventilated glass atrium, situated in the centre of the tower, this centralises and distributes both airflow and natural light through the different rooms of the structure.

An important aspect of sustainable architecture is integration into the natural environment. This was first stylistically explored by Frank Lloyd Wright in the 1930’s. As the pioneer of Organicism, he introduced a new design philosophy, “the rejection of tradition”. This enabled nature inspired design to break away from the visual rigidity of curved shapes, focusing on the materiality of the structure. Wrights most renowned project, Fallingwater, is an example of a structure that is extremely well-integrated into the natural environment aesthetically. The drawback, however, is prevalent in the inefficient use of materials. Structure is navigated by aesthetic design rather than environmental sustainability or material efficiency leading to huge wastage in material. This can be prevented through the incorporation of biomorphic structural design.

Figure 10 – Model of the Biorock Pavilion, Michael Pawlyn, from Dezeen

After the rise and fall of modernism and full acceptance of the need for a change in approach to structural design, architects and engineers must look to innovative, integrated solutions for this complex issue. Researchers exploring biomorphic structures have found that a state of compromise can be attained in the way technical design is approached. It is possible to mimic the mathematical patterns and sequences that give rise to highly optimised and efficient structures naturally occurring in nature. Biology tells us that lightweight flexible and adaptable structures are highly efficient and so basing designs on these principles will increase a buildings functionality making it an ideal candidate for adaptive reuse.

Explorative architect Michael Pawlyn, a prominent figure in regenerative design and biomimicry, is currently working on the ‘Biorock Pavilion’ project to build an extremely efficient, carbon sequestering structure using the absolute minimum volume of material. The building methodology of this project is still in its early stages of development but is planning to be created within seawater, utilising the minerals available to create its structural form, producing a material similar to reinforced concrete. A thin steel framework will act as a guide for the form-active pavilion shape, based on the golden ratio and other mathematical patterns prevalent in shell structures.

Previous work Pawlyn has been involved in includes The Eden Project, a visitor’s attraction greenhouse centre, inspired by the design of bubbles, situated in a former clay mine location. The structure is a form-active, lightweight steel superstructure with large plastic hexagonal pillows forming the external envelope allowing a large amount of light to penetrate in. The superstructure is so light that it weighs less than the air inside the biome. Because of this, the foundations could be made much smaller than previously expected, further saving on material.

Figure 11 – The Eden Project Biomes, Cornwall, Grimshaw Architects, 2000, from edenproject.com

In order to reach environmental sustainability, the natural environment needs to be restored to a healthy level. This can only be done through the continual support of ecosystems and biological processes embedded in our future production process. Current practice is only furthering environmental damage or, at best, masking deeper issues and surface level changes through the use of eco-gadgets and the like, distracting us from the major issue at hand.

Environmentally sustainable architecture cannot become a passing phase polluted through the over-stylistic interpretations as it has done in the past but instead needs to be incorporated in all future architectural endeavours if human life wants to continue thriving on this planet. The structural approach of environmentally sustainable architecture will need to be carried out in a variety of forms. Assessing the situation of a piece of architecture considering its conditions properly through critical appraisals will lead to the best unique resolution to be created. This relates strongly to the structural efficiency of each form through analysis of the ‘economy of means’.

For this to realistically take shape globally, incremental changes would be extremely important, especially in certain areas of the world where sustainable development has not been readily accepted. This way, all forms of sustainability would be integrated gradually, in line with social change, meanwhile keeping the incorporation of a closed system as the final goal.

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Kafka G., 2019. Money talks: Bloomberg London, UK, by Foster + Partners. The Architectural Review, Issue 1458, pp.88-95
Oxford English Dictionary, Lexico, (2020)
TED Talk Michael Pawlyn. [video] Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_pawlyn_using_nature_s_genius_in_architecture
WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee, 2019. Sustainable Historic Preservation [online]. Available from: https://www.wbdg.org/design-objectives/historic-preservation/sustainable-historic-preservation
WBDG Sustainable Committee, 2018. Sustainable Design Objectives [online]. Available from: https://www.wbdg.org/design-objectives/sustainable
Yeang, K. EcoDesign: A Manual for Ecological Design. London, England: Wiley-Academy, 2006, p.22

Madeleine Wenman 07/06/2020 Madeleine Wenman 07/06/2020

Advancements in Steel and Concrete Manufacture

Figure 1 - Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower, from Flickr

Technical advancements in the concrete and steel industry have greatly increased the production rate, quality and versatility of these materials over the past century. Factors including pressures from competing materials in the industry, environmental concerns, cost effectivity and structural performance act as a driving force for these advancements to occur.

Figure 2 - First floor plan, Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower, from CTBUH

Diagrid (DG) systems and self-compacting concrete (SCC) are more recently developed construction methods that overcome many of the limitations the original materials could not. Diagrid systems are commonly used in high rise structures like skyscrapers.

Tokyo’s ‘Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower’ uses DG systems for both the high-rise skyscraper and low-rise auditorium. With 50 storeys above ground and 3 below, Tange Associates designed this educational building to accommodate 10,000 students. The first-floor plan provides 3 lecture halls and student lounges, surrounding the inner core of the building.

The tower’s complex, tall design, situated in a highly seismic country proved a challenging project for Arup Japan. The complex curved envelope was made possible by the unique compilation of 3 elliptical DG frames and inner core frame. The elliptical frames are positioned at the perimeter of the building allowing a wide stance for efficient transfer of lateral force and earthquake overturning moments. Each storey is a set height to create a clean connection to the proceeding storey’s DG frame. Alongside the installed cogeneration system, the elliptic shape allows for an even distribution of natural light as well as aerodynamic wind dispersion. This intelligent design is in response to the environment reducing unnecessary greenhouse gas emission and heat radiation. Strong winds need to be further dissipated evenly to avoid structural damage.

A “diagonal” “grid” system acts as a form of bracing while eliminating the need for vertical columns. Isotropic materials, like steel are often favoured for this construction method as the bracing members are used to resist both compression and tension. The structural stability of this is made possible by the triangular configuration of the grid. It enables the effective distribution of dead loads on top of the lateral load through the frame.

Regarding construction, the core frame is constructed primarily. This requires precision and accuracy before being welded into place. Next the DG members are assembled into place, using temporary works to form initial connections. Floor beams are then erected and aligned, finally, permanent bolts replace the temporary works and the DG structure is welded together.

Figure 3 - Lincoln City & Country Museum interior, from Panter Hudspith

In contrast SCC is often used for low-rise buildings. Developed in Japan in the 1980’s, SCC is a high strength concrete. It has a much higher cement content than traditional concrete, through the addition of a water-reducing admixture. The electrostatically charged cement particles are neutralised by the admixture, thereby reducing friction allowing greater flow between the particles, avoiding the negative impacts of adding excess water to the mixture. Superplasticisers are now used for higher efficiency, causing repulsion between the cement particles. To prevent instability a viscosity modifying agent is added to hold the structure well throughout its lifetime.

Benefits of this construction method include faster and safer on-site construction as no vibration is required, increased workability as the concrete mix flows easily around heavy, complex reinforcements, a higher quality finish and reduced labour and plant costs during construction which usually offsets the increased price of SCC to traditional concrete.

SCC is a self-levelling material making it perfect for the construction of sloping roof slabs exemplified in the ‘City and County Museum’ in Lincoln. The roofs used complicated bulky reinforcements that most concretes would fail to produce a perfect finish over, SCC however presented a consistent high-quality finish either side of each slab. The high fluidity of SCC makes it excellent for detailed design. Boardmark effects and textures are achieved throughout the museum mimicking the use of different materials. Brick texture can be seen in the interior of the museum, as shown in Figure 3.

Concrete and steel have developed into uniquely useful materials over the past century, exhibiting properties suitable for a variety of different types of construction. Technical advancements exemplify these changes and have allowed many of the ground-breaking structures standing today to be erected. Perhaps the most structurally sound designs incorporate the use of both these materials. Neither material has reached it full capability, however, environmental sustainability has become a priority in recent years forcing the high embodied energy and carbon of concrete and steel to be taken more into consideration. For this reason current research is focused on increasing the efficiency of timber and other more eco-friendly materials. Nevertheless, due to the economic sustainability of concrete and steel, further advancements have yet to come.

Bibliography

CTBUH, Case Study: Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower, CTBUH Journal, 2009, pp. 16-19

Crompton S., Advances In Concrete Technology, ICT, December 2010, pp. 16-20

Shri Purvansh Shah B., Advancements in Concrete Technology, AJER, Vol. 4, 2015, pp. 36-40

Fu F., Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures, February 2018, chpt. 2.3, 2.4 & 5.4

Szolomicki J. and Golasz-Szolomicka H., Technological Advances and Trends in Modern High-Rise Buildings, August 2019

Rich, D. et al., Optimising construction with self-compacting concrete. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Construction Materials 170 (2), 2017, pp. 104-114

ConcreteCentre, Self-Compacting Concrete, MPA

Madeleine Wenman 06/06/2020 Madeleine Wenman 06/06/2020

Gothic Vaulting; A Structural Analysis

Text from a previous essay submission.

Like the majority of shifts in architectural styles, the Gothic was born out of a revolutionary attitude. Architecture tends to shape itself to the culture and social dynamic of the time rather than solely the shelter and efficiency of structure. The Gothic manages to tie in both cultural reform and greater structural efficiency hence making it a revolutionary success.

Saint Denis found at Liberation — *Saint Denis found at* *Liberation*

First developed in the northern region Île-de-France, Abbot Suger was the pioneer of this world-renowned style. His vision was great, aspiring to redesign one of the most prestigious abbeys of France, the Basilica of Saint-Denis, where he was elected abbot, looking to exceed some of the most influential early Christian architecture, including ‘Hagia Sophia’.

After the completion of the abbey in 1140, his work was met with great criticism. ‘Gothic’ was a derogatory term used to pair the style with the barbaric gothic tribe who wrecked havoc among civilisations in the past. His critics aimed to brand this newfound style as ‘unrefined’ in comparison to Romanesque architecture, which had been long favoured in Europe. This however couldn’t be further from reality, Suger’s design was extremely refined with strong symbolic allusions to biblical scriptures and an immersive atmosphere, transforming the inhabitant into a space of higher spirituality.

Using descriptions of the Temple of Solomon to inspire Suger’s design, the architect managed to evoke a sense of divine energy through certain elements, designing an abbey which both physically and metaphysically brings the inhabitant closer to God. Features including the emphasis on verticality and innovative use of light aid in echoing this motif. One that has remained constant throughout the continuation of the gothic style and therefore has shaped the design process in many ways.

The ribbed vault, as one of the three main elements of Gothic architecture, is directly related to various other elements within a structure. The earliest forms of vaulting date back to c. 6000 BC from neolithic villages where vaults were used as structural mud domes over circular dwellings. These circular domed vaults could be geometrically compared to an arch rotated on its central vertical axis unlike traditional tunnel vaults which are geometrically similar to an arch elongated along its horizontal plane.

The Mayans and Byzantines were known to have used Corbel vaults which were formed from two sets of layered corbels until they meet to form a pointed ceiling. This is the first well documented vault that could be used to support a storey above it. Far proceeding these the Romans drew on Etruscan techniques and developed the barrel vault and the, more efficient, groin vault, typically made of masonry. The thrust is concentrated along the groins and therefore only requires abutments at the 4 groin corners rather than throughout the ceiling as is required for the barrel vault. These forms became the basis from which Romanesque vaulting grew.

Myan ruins, the corbel arch found at encircleworldphotos — *Myan ruins, the corbel arch found at* *encircleworldphotos*

The Gothic style managed to lighten and heighten these heavier Romanesque vaulting systems through structural development. Yielding designs including, the rib and fan vault, both monopolising on illumination of light from all 4 sides, as well as the reduction in material required due to their greater structural efficiency.

Gothic architecture takes advantage of the most efficient geometrical forms and incorporates them into structural features of the cathedral enabling the structure to reach limits that are impossible for the Romanesque style to achieve.

When analysing the vault, we must first consider the pointed arch from which its form is based. Romanesque semicircular arches have some severe limitations. Although they are aesthetically pleasing and sturdy, the shape they adopt is inefficient. The majority of the stress lines lie horizontally, pushing outwards. In practice this means either side of the domical vault, thick walls are required to support the load pushing outwards radially from the top of the vault. This leaves very little space for windows, meaning the inside of cathedrals and churches were much darker during the daytime.

Pointed arches, influenced by Islamic architecture of Spain, direct the majority of the force downwards, with the orientation of the stress lines being closer to vertical. In a structure, this results in less force being directed to the walls and more directed to the supporting piers making the need for large heavy walls obsolete. The form closely follows that of a catenary curve, the most efficient curve shape for a load bearing structure. This can be verified by holding a piece of string at both ends and observing how it naturally falls with the equal distribution of gravitational force replicating a distributed load acting on a structure.

In order to construct these vaults a method called centring was employed where wooden frames are used as a base for the construction of masonry ribs. These ribs are the major structural element and are pasted together with mortar and left to dry until the wooden frame can be removed and the whole process is repeated. While other ribs are being constructed the infill is made.

Ribbed gothic vaults are an effective combination of these geometric features. The pointed arch distributes load efficiently meanwhile the ribs act as a skeletal structure, along which the load is concentrated. These ribs replicate predetermined load paths transferring forces to the piers which extend from the ribs down to the base of the structure. These thick piers, act similarly to the ribs and carry the majority of the load in the walls.

Nave section of Notre Dame de Paris from Wikipedia — *Nave section of Notre Dame de Paris from* *Wikipedia*

Although the geometry of the ribbed vaults is extremely efficient, cathedrals tended to test this efficiency to the limits, soaring to extreme heights. For this reason there ended up being a large magnitude of force transferred to the base of the piers. Although the pointed arch favours the vertical plane, the stress lines are not completely vertical and so without correct support, the walls are likely to explode outwards. For this reason, buttresses were used to support areas of the walls carrying the majority of the load. Initially, buttresses were fully attached to the outer façade of the cathedral, acting as an extension of the wall with extra material to absorb the forces from the ceiling.

Progression in the Gothic Era gave rise to further optimisation in certain Gothic features. In 1179, William the Englishman introduced a flying buttress, showcased in Canterbury Cathedral, consisting of the buttress tower which connected to the outer façade only by a flyer. The first major use of fully optimised flying buttresses was in Notre-Dame de Paris added in 1220. Through the use of arched and half-arched flyers, the load transmits the thrust of the vault across the buttress tower. This skeletal extension allowed even wider spaces for wall penetrations adding a further feeling of lightness to the structure.

Due to this net structure, gothic cathedrals are able to incorporate large stained glass windows that can span between piers. These were included as another feature to bring the inhabitant of the cathedral closer to God. Many people going to church at this time were illiterate and couldn’t read the Bible themselves so stories were illustrated through the stained glass.

A prime example of this is Notre-Dame de Paris’ inclusion of a stunning, ambitious stained glass rose window of around 13m in diameter, along with a multitude of smaller versions illuminating the interior space.

Looking closer at the vaulting systems of different cathedrals we can explore the development of different vaulting systems, and how their benefits are drawbacks shaped future designs, enabling cathedrals to gradually reach higher elevations as time progressed.

South façade Rose Window found at Pixels — *South façade Rose Window found at* *Pixels*

The style of the vaults at Durham were driven by proportionality and the preference on linearity. This focus on aesthetics meant the stability of the vaulting was insufficient. Sensitivities within the structure meant lateral thrusts was not supported correctly. This is explored in more detail later on when exploring the transition from quadripartite to sexpartite vaulting but ultimately can result in spreading of the vaults.

Ribbed vaulting was introduced in Durham Cathedral as early as 1093, during the Norman rule of England. It is important to bear in mind, however, that many other Gothic features were later additions, hence why Saint Denis remains the pioneering cathedral of the Gothic style. The style of the vaults at Durham were driven by proportionality and the preference on linearity. This focus on aesthetics meant the stability of the vaulting was insufficient. Sensitivities within the structure meant lateral thrusts was not supported correctly. This is explored in more detail later on when exploring the transition from quadripartite to sexpartite vaulting but ultimately can result in spreading of the vaults.

The first examples of decorative English vaulting and tierceron vaulting were displayed in Lincoln cathedral. Saint Hugh’s Choir remains the oldest part of the cathedral having been constructed in 1208. This Early English Gothic exhibits a variety of unusual vaulting styles designed by master mason Geoffrey de Noiers, termed ‘crazy vaults’. Additional ribs skewed quadripartite vaults creating an inverse asymmetric pattern and preventing the bays from directly mirroring one another from either side of the choir angling light into offset directions.

The innovative vaulting scheme of Lincoln continues throughout the cathedral. Elaborate symmetrical tierceron vaulting lines the nave of the cathedral, continuous and discontinuous ridge ribs and sexpartite vaults maximising the inflow of natural light through the widened bays, and therefore windows, of the clerestory.

Notre-dame de Paris also uses sexpartite vaulting with the majority lining its nave. Quadripartite vaults, introduced in the mid 13th century became the more favourable vaulting system.

Crazy Vaults at St. Hughs Choir, from Geograph — *Crazy Vaults at St. Hughs Choir, from* *Geograph*

Reasons for this change in preference have remained a mystery to historians for a long time. Many explanations have been proposed over the years, one being that quadripartite vaults are lighter than sexpartite vaults and hence more favourable for masons to construct requiring less support and making it the system more economically efficient. However, upon weighing the two different vaulting styles, spanning the same unit area, for a Princeton computer model study of ribbed vaulting, the quadripartite vault came out heavier than the sexpartite.

This unexpected result can be explained by the reduced number of ribs in a sexpartite vault per unit area. This makes sense because although the sexpartite vaults are split into 6 parts they also span a larger distance while the ribs in the quadripartite are usually constructed closer together. This result further implied there must be a larger issue than weight that the sexpartite vaulting caused making it the lesser option.

After analysing the force distribution within the vaults we can see the greater flaw of the sexpartite system that came specifically with the High Gothic. Distributed forces within the vaults act differently on the springings of the arches depending on the angle of the ribs. The angle navigates the direction of the flow of forces within each vault. Three force components need to be considered for this analysis: the vertical, horizontal and longitudinal.

In theory all of these forces are able to be supported. The vertical force is typically supported by the clerestory, piers and nave arcade, horizontal forces are counteracted by the flying buttresses transferring them to the ground and finally the longitudinal forces cancel one another out either side of the nave.

Visualisation of the force orientations within each vaulting system from JSTOR article — *Visualisation of the force orientations within each vaulting system from* *JSTOR article*

In practice, however, the sexpartite vaults were much more complex to erect. This is because they caused a much larger longitudinal force component, the only component of all three that had no way of being supported due to the nature of construction. All the force was distributed to the clerestory as the bays are constructed at a later period to provide stability. If the nave was particularly tall this force would also grow and apply greater pressure to the clerestory. Through experimentation of failed designs and geometrical representations masons most likely observed this change in force distribution not being conducive for the high ceilings reached during the High Gothic period. These internal forces create sensitivities that builders need to be aware of when planning the structural layout and construction process. Safety margins became tighter in mid 13th century due to the clear instability of Beauvais and Amiens.

Beauvais was the tallest Gothic cathedral ever built, reaching 47.5m before its collapse in 1284. With the majority of its official records being destroyed, the question of what exactly caused the collapse of this cathedral still remains a mystery. There seemed to have been many small errors including but not limited to insufficient foundations, incorrectly spaced piers, the incorrect design of certain parts of the superstructure, as well as the critical lack of upper buttressing.

The collapse of Beauvais cathedral rose alarm bells to future cathedral designers and in the years progressing Europe saw a decline in elevation heights and more precision during planning and construction. The allowed Amiens Cathedral, constructed in 1220, to regain its position as the tallest cathedral for a period.

The dimensions of Amiens cathedral were extraordinary to the point of near collapse, with a stone-vaulted nave reacting 42.3m. After the success of Chartres masons and designers had more confidence in the capabilities of the Gothic structure in enabling larger vaults to be erected. The interior was also monumental estimated to be 200,000 m3 in volume.

In 1498, well regarded mason, Tarisel, noticed weaknesses in the structure. Upon analysis it seemed flying buttresses for the nave and transept was not adequate and required strengthening. Furthermore, large pillars holding the transept were unstable under the strong thrust of pointed archways. An iron wall tie was used around the whole structure, sufficiently stabilising the cathedral.

The progression of the mastery of Gothic masons was very rapid considering the lack of technology at the time. In the late 14th century England had started using further decorative styles of vaulting, a major style being the ‘fan vault’ displayed in Gloucester cathedral in which ribs line the surface of an inverted cone, equally space out each connecting to lien vaults which form the web like ceiling perpendicular to the walls.

This type developed from experimentation with the vault being formed of different shapes while still maintaining the pointed arch outline. The meeting of two inverted cones managed to recreate this efficient shape. Over time the fan vault style developed showing progression through shape optimisation and the addition of more ribs. This optimisation lent itself to the return of Roman construction in pointed masonry, which was often preferred. English cathedrals in general were not as ambitious in height as French, most likely due to the angle of sunlight remaining fairly low for the majority of the day. The Gothic style, however, has always been prominent in English history with the Palace of Westminster along with St. Pancras Renaissance Hotel.

Fan Vaulting at Gloucester Cathedral, from Geograph — *Fan Vaulting at Gloucester Cathedral, from* *Geograph*

Vaulting of La Sagrada Familia, from SAH — *Vaulting of La Sagrada Familia, from* *SAH*

The extensive use of the Gothic in England and France soon infiltrated to other European countries. Barcelona’s Sagrada Familia used an innovative style of vaulting known as the Catalan Vault involving the layering of bricks and mortar. Gaudi uses double twisted forms taking inspiration from nature, parabolic and hyperbolic shapes in order to create the vaulting columns.

Similar to traditional Gothic cathedrals there is an emphasis of verticality and light with the height of the nave reaching 45m as well as light infiltrating into the structure from above.

Italy also borrowed parts of the Gothic style, demonstrating its adaptability to accommodate varying interpretations that fit better with local conditions. Italian builders were experts in the domed vault and the cultural opinion didn’t seem fond of external buttressing. For this reason Italy incorporated the domed pointed arch vault in their designs. Milan Cathedral remains the most famous piece of Italian Gothic architecture, with its nave height of 45m equal to La Sagrada Familia, and extremely close to that of Beauvais, without the use of flying buttresses.

The rapid development of the Gothic style enabled it to become one of the most influential in architectural history. Overcoming the heavy criticism from a Romanesque dominated Europe, it rose to full glory displaying the potential of the ribbed skeletal system aided by the efficiency of the geometry used.

The style saw great variation in its evolution, with the majority of early experimentation being completed in England and France. This paved the way for a multitude of future design and variation showcased in different European countries. The skeletal system influenced future innovations in architecture, igniting the use of ribbed systems as a structural framework. Furthermore, Gothic vaulting built greatly on our understanding of vaulting systems pathing the way for future optimisation in other styles. Culturally it signified the revolutionary attitude of society, breaking away from the constraints of the Romanesque, in order to surpass parameters unimaginable using previous construction methods.